Directing is influencing people's behavior through motivation, communication, group dynamics, leadership and discipline. The purpose of directing is to channel the behavior of all personnel to accomplish the organization's mission and objectives while simultaneously helping them accomplish their own career objectives.
Managers give this function a variety of names. Higgins calls it leading. Other labels are: influencing, coaching, motivating, interpersonal relations, and human relations.
The directing function gives the manager an active rather than a passive role in employee performance, conduct and accomplishments. Managers accomplish their objectives through people. In blaming others for her or his human resource problems, a manager is denying the management responsibilities inherent in the directing function.
The directing function gives managers a second responsibility: helping people in the organization accomplish their individual career goals. Organizations do not succeed while their people are failing. Helping people in the organization with career planning and professional development is an integral part of the directing function.
In ManagementExcel, the directing function in Managing for Success has included: motivation, communication, performance appraisal, discipline and conflict management. Several ManagementExcel teams have offered situational leadership as an advanced course for Managing for Success graduates. ManagementExcel team leader in-services have included group dynamics and team building.
Motivation
Selection, training, evaluation and discipline cannot guarantee a high level of employee performance. Motivation, the inner force that directs employee behavior, also plays an important role. Highly motivated people perform better than unmotivated people. Motivation covers up ability and skill deficiencies in employees. Such truisms about motivation leave employers wanting to be surrounded by highly motivated people but unequipped to motivate their employees. Employers and supervisors want easily applied motivation models but such models are unavailable.
Motivation probably tops the list of complex activities with which labor managers deal. Their intuition suggests an easy answer, "I want everyone around here to be motivated." They often blame employees for their lack of motivation and performance problems. Employees on the other hand often blame any performance problems they may have on external factors - their supervisors, equipment, training, co-workers, weather, unrealistic demands made on them, pressures at home, lack of recognition etc., etc. Despite the conflicting perceptions held by employers and employees, employers must deal with employee motivation.
Three ways of looking at motivation are: needs, rewards and effort. The needs approach stems from the notion that peoples' unsatisfied needs drive their behavior. Figure out a person's needs, satisfy the needs and the person will be motivated. For example, a person with a high need to satisfy goals is motivated by production targets. The rewards approach is based on the expectation that rewarded behavior is repeated. Giving a person a bonus for excellent performance during a difficult harvest period encourages the person to make a special effort during the next difficult harvest. The effort approach to motivation is based on the expectation that effort brings the worker what he or she wants. The thought that working hard leads to advancement and new career opportunities is consistent with the effort approach. The effort approach includes a presumption that the employer is fair, i.e., effort is recognized and rewarded. Managers cannot reduce motivation to a simple choice of one of these approaches. Each of the three approaches contributes to an understanding of motivation and how motivation varies person to person and over time.
The most effective motivation for employees comes from within each employee, i.e., self-motivation. Possible indicators of self-motivation include: past accomplishments in school, sports, organizations and work; stated career goals and other kinds of goals; expertise in one or more areas that shows evidence of craftsmanship, pride in knowledge and abilities, and self-confidence; an evident desire to continue to learn; and a general enthusiasm for life.
Threats, bribery, manipulation and coercion have only limited usefulness beyond the very short-run in changing behavior in the farm environment. More effective employer action responds to employee needs, making their work useful to satisfying their needs, helping employees understand the relationship between their contribution to success of the farm and rewards received, and creating an atmosphere of equity and fairness.
More specifically, communication influences the day-to-day relations among family members. Communication also affects the willingness of family members to provide useful suggestions. Making employees outside the family feel a part of the business requires communication. In fact, for employees to make the important evolution from "workers" to "working managers" requires effective communication between supervisors and employees.
Family members are typically hesitant to state their goals, their concerns and their disappointments. Of course, a family member may be a complainer and share views to the point other family members silently beg for less "communication." Much more common is the need to understand better what family members are "really thinking."
This paper is about improving communication skills. Removing barriers to communication is one of the easiest ways to improve communication. Removing these barriers starts with an understanding of a communication model. This paper is designed to help managers think about their own communication skills and the way communication is done day-to-day back home.
Communication Model
The model in Figure 1 identifies the major components in the communication process. The process starts with a sender who has a message for a receiver. Two or more people are always involved in communication. The sender has the responsibility for the message.
The sender's message travels to the receiver through one or more channels chosen by the sender. The channels may be verbal or nonverbal. They may involve only one of the senses, hearing for example, or they may involve all five of the senses: hearing, sight, touch, smell, and taste. Nonverbal communication, popularly referred to as body language, relies primarily on seeing rather than hearing.
Figure 1. Communication Model
The sending of a message by an appropriate channel to a receiver appears to have completed the
communication process or at least the sender's responsibility. Not so! After sending the
message, the sender becomes a receiver and the receiver becomes a sender through the process of
feedback. Feedback is the receiver's response to the attempt by the sender to send the message.
Feedback is the key to determination by the sender of whether or not the message has been
received in the intended form. Feedback involves choice of channel by the receiver of the
original message. The channel for feedback may be quite different from the original channel
chosen by the sender. A puzzled look may be the feedback to what the sender considered a
perfectly clear oral instruction.
Effect on the receiver completes the communication process. Effective communication is the original sender having the desired effect on the receiver. Communication at its best minimizes misunderstanding between sender and receiver. The sender cannot transplant a message or idea. Ineffective communication means there was no effect on the receiver or the effect was unexpected, undesired and/or unknown to the sender.
This simplified version of a complex process can be a powerful tool for thinking about one's communication skills, diagnosing communication problems and developing plans for improvement of communication. The good news about communication is that improvement is almost always possible. The bad news is that perfection in communication escapes everyone.
Barriers to Communication
Problems with any one of the components of the communication model can become a barrier to communication. These barriers suggest opportunities for improving communication.
1. Muddled messages - Effective communication starts with a clear message. Contrast these two messages: "Please be here about 7:00 tomorrow morning." "Please be here at 7:00 tomorrow morning." The one word difference makes the first message muddled and the second message clear.
Muddled messages are a barrier to communication because the receiver is left unclear about the intent of the sender. Muddled messages have many causes. The sender may be confused in his or her thinking. The message may be little more than a vague idea. The problem may be semantics, e.g., note this muddled newspaper ad: "Dog for sale. Will eat anything. Especially likes children. Call 888-3599 for more information."
Feedback from the receiver is the best way for a sender to be sure that the message is clear rather than muddled. Clarifying muddled messages is the responsibility of the sender. The sender hoping the receiver will figure out what was really meant does little to remove this barrier to communication.
2. Stereotyping - Stereotyping causes us to typify a person, a group, an event or a thing on oversimplified conceptions, beliefs, or opinions. Thus, basketball players can be typed as tall, green equipment as better than red equipment, football linemen as dumb, Ford as better than Chevrolet, Vikings as handsome, and people raised on swine farms as interested in animals. Stereotyping can substitute for thinking, analysis and open mindedness to a new situation.
Stereotyping is a barrier to communication when it causes people to act as if they already know the message that is coming from the sender or worse, as if no message is necessary because "everybody already knows." Both senders and listeners should continuously look for and address thinking, conclusions and actions based on stereotypes.
3. Wrong channel - "Good morning." An oral channel for this message is highly appropriate. Writing "GOOD MORNING!" on a chalk board in the machine shed is less effective than a warm oral greeting. On the other hand, a detailed request to a contractor for construction of a farrowing house should be in writing, i.e., non-oral. A long conversation between a pork producer and a contractor about the farrowing house construction, with neither taking notes, surely will result in confusion and misunderstanding. Similarly, several conversations between a father and son concerning a partnership and long-term plans for the business, with neither taking notes, surely will result in confusion and misunderstanding. It will also likely result in other family members not understanding what father and son have agreed to. These simple examples illustrate how the wrong channel can be a barrier to communication.
Variation of channels helps the receiver understand the nature and importance of a message. Using a training video on cleaning practices helps new employees grasp the importance placed on herd health. A written disciplinary warning for tardiness emphasizes to the employee that the problem is serious. A birthday card to a daughter-in-law is more sincere than a request to a son to say "Happy Birthday" to his wife.
Simple rules for selection of a channel cause more problems than they solve. In chosing a channel, the sender needs to be sensitive to such things as the complexity of the message (good morning versus a construction contract); the consequences of a misunderstanding (medication for a sick animal versus a guess about tomorrow's weather); knowledge, skills and abilities of the receiver (a new employee versus a partner in the business); and immediacy of action to be taken from the message (instructions for this morning's work versus a plan of work for next year).
4. Language - Words are not reality. Words as the sender understands them are combined with the perceptions of those words by the receiver. Language represents only part of the whole. We fill in the rest with perceptions. Trying to understand a foreign language easily demonstrates words not being reality. Being "foreign" is not limited to the language of another country. It can be the language of another farm. The Gerken house may be where the Browns now live. The green goose may be a trailer painted red long after it was given the name green goose. A brassy day may say much about temperature and little about color.
Each new family member and employee needs to be taught the language of the farm. Until the farm's language is learned, it can be as much a barrier to communication as a foreign language.
5. Lack of feedback - Feedback is the mirror of communication. Feedback mirrors what the sender has sent. Feedback is the receiver sending back to the sender the message as perceived. Without feedback, communication is one-way.
Feedback happens in a variety of ways. Asking a person to repeat what has been said, e.g., repeat instructions, is a very direct way of getting feedback. Feedback may be as subtle as a stare, a puzzled look, a nod, or failure to ask any questions after complicated instructions have been given. Both sender and receiver can play an active role in using feedback to make communication truly two-way.
Feedback should be helpful rather than hurtful. Prompt feedback is more effective that feedback saved up until the "right" moment. Feedback should deal in specifics rather than generalities. Approach feedback as a problem in perception rather than a problem of discovering the facts.
6. Poor listening skills - Listening is difficult. A typical speaker says about 125 words per minute. The typical listener can receive 400-600 words per minute. Thus, about 75 percent of listening time is free time. The free time often sidetracks the listener. The solution is to be an active rather than passive listener.
One important listening skill is to be prepared to listen. Tune out thoughts about other people and other problems. Search for meaning in what the person is saying. A mental outline or summary of key thoughts can be very helpful. Avoid interrupting the speaker. "Shut up" is a useful listening guideline. "Shut up some more" is a useful extension of this guideline. Withhold evaluation and judgement until the other person has finished with the message. A listener's premature frown, shaking of the head, or bored look can easily convince the other person there is no reason to elaborate or try again to communicate his or her excellent idea.
Providing feedback is the most important active listening skill. Ask questions. Nod in agreement. Look the person straight in the eye. Lean forward. Be an animated listener. Focus on what is being said. Repeat key points.
Active listening is particularly important in dealing with an angry person. Encouraging the
person to speak, i.e., to vent feelings, is essential to establishing communication with an angry
person. Repeat what the person has said. Ask questions to encourage the person to say again
what he or she seemed most anxious to say in the first place. An angry person will not start
listening until they have "cooled" down. Telling an angry person to "cool" down often has the
opposite effect. Getting angry with an angry person only assures that there are now two people
not listening to what the other is saying.
7. Interruptions - A farm is a lively place. Few days are routine. Long periods of calm and quiet rarely interrupt the usual hectic pace. In this environment, conversations, meetings, instructions and even casual talk about last night's game are likely to be interrupted. The interruptions may be due to something more pressing, rudeness, lack of privacy for discussion, a drop-in visitor, an emergency or even the curiosity of someone else wanting to know what two other people are talking about.
No matter the cause, interruptions are a barrier to communication. In the extreme, there is a reluctance of employees and family members even to attempt discussion with a manager because of the near certainty that the conversation will be interrupted. Less extreme but nevertheless serious is the problem of incomplete instructions because someone came by with a pressing question.
8. Physical distractions - Physical distractions are the physical things that get in the way of communication. Examples of such things include the telephone, a pick-up truck door, a desk, an uncomfortable meeting place, and noise.
These physical distractions are common on farms. If the phone rings, the tendency is to answer it even if the caller is interrupting a very important or even delicate conversation. A supervisor may give instructions from the driver's seat of a pick-up truck. Talking through an open window and down to an employee makes the truck door a barrier. A person sitting behind a desk, especially if sitting in a large chair, talking across the desk is talking from behind a physical barrier. Two people talking facing each other without a desk or truck-door between them have a much more open and personal sense of communication. Uncomfortable meeting places may include a place on the farm that is too hot or too cold. Another example is a meeting room with uncomfortable chairs that soon cause people to want to stand even if it means cutting short the discussion. Noise is a physical distraction simply because it is hard to concentrate on a conversation if hearing is difficult.
Facilitating Communication
Beyond removal of specific barriers to communication, the following general guidelines may
also help communication.
1. Have a positive attitude about communication. Defensiveness interferes with communication.
2. Work at improving communication skills. It takes knowledge and work. The communication
model and discussion of barriers to communication provide the necessary knowledge. This
increased awareness of the potential for improving communication is the first step to better
communication.
3. Include communication as a skill to be evaluated along with all the other skills in each person's
job description. Help other people improve their communication skills by helping them
understand their communication problems.
4. Make communication goal oriented. Relational goals come first and pave the way for other
goals. When the sender and receiver have a good relationship, they are much more likely to
accomplish their communication goals.
5. Approach communication as a creative process rather than simply part of the chore of working
with people. Experiment with communication alternatives. What works with one person may
not work well with another person. Vary channels, listening techniques and feedback techniques.
6. Accept the reality of miscommunication. The best communicators fail to have perfect
communication. They accept miscommunication and work to minimize its negative impacts.
Summary
Communication is at the heart of many interpersonal problems in family businesses. Understanding the communication process and then working at improvement provide managers a recipe for becoming more effective communicators. Knowing the common barriers to communication is the first step to minimizing their impact. Managers can reflect on how they are doing and use the ideas presented in this paper. When taking stock of how well you are doing as a manager and family member, first ask yourself and others how well you are doing as a communicator.
Performance Appraisal
No employee escapes performance appraisal. As a minimum, each employee receives informal messages from his or her supervisor and co-workers. The messages may be carefully calculated or emotional outbursts, frequent or infrequent, helpful or hurtful, understood or misunderstood, consistent or inconsistent, fair or unfair. They may improve performance or cause additional performance problems. They may motivate an employee or leave the employee discouraged and disgruntled.
Turning performance appraisal into a positive force challenges even the best farm personnel
manager. Three steps are necessary:
1. Establish written standards for employee performance
2. Develop both supervisor and employee understanding of these standards
3. Regularly inform employees of how they are performing relative to the established standards
Effective performance appraisal moves beyond informal communication but does not exclude it. Planned and formal performance evaluation interviews complement spontaneous informal employer-employee interaction about performance.
Few farms have formal employee performance programs. Spontaneous and informal comments about performance are the norm. Too often, employees are left guessing about the quality of their performance or underrate their performance because of the sharing of negative but not positive evaluations.
Performance evaluation is a complex activity. A formal performance evaluation system can be a realistic long-term goal to work toward. In the short-run, farm employers can take helpful steps toward the long-run ideal. The first step is to develop job descriptions for everyone with everyone's help. These job descriptions evolve continuously rather than being done once and for all. Job descriptions have value only if they are current, in writing, and used regularly to clarify job content, the organizational structure of the business and as a basis for evaluation.
In the short-run, the following statements and questions can guide performance evaluation,
counseling and planning discussions with each employee:
1. I see the following three things as your most important strengths.
2. I see the following two things for us to work on improving during the next six months.
3. What do you see as your most important strengths?
4. What would you like to learn or work on improving?
5. How should I work on improving?
Intermediate steps could include clear communication of expectations for employees, regular
feedback to employees about their performance, providing employees opportunity to respond to
their supervisor's comments and additional training for employees based on needs identified
through performance appraisal. The notion of catching people doing things right should be an
important part of employee evaluation and improving performance appraisal.
Discipline
High quality farm worker performance requires implementation of carefully made tactical plans. Deviations from the plans by employees results in standards not being met and goals not being accomplished. Managers must deal with employees' deviation from rules, procedures and expected behaviors. Employees coming late to work, not following safety procedures when working alone, not properly cleaning equipment in their rush to get home, and using wrong or wrong amounts of medication are examples of unacceptable behavior that should be addressed rather than ignored. A cautionary note is in order. Employers can easily confuse discipline problems with selection, training and communication problems. This discussion of discipline applies to those cases in which the employee can reasonably be expected to perform or behave according to established standards, norms or rules, i.e., they have been carefully selected, well trained and are regularly evaluated.
A disciplined person exhibits the self-control, dedication and orderly conduct consistent with successful performance of job responsibilities. This discipline may come through self-discipline, co-workers or the supervisor/employer. Self-discipline is best and most likely to come from well selected, trained, and motivated people who regularly have feedback on their performance.
An employee not performing up to the agreed upon standards or not following the understood rules is subject to punishment, i.e., disciplinary action. Punishing or disciplining employees falls among the least pleasant activities in human resource management. In the short-run, doing nothing or ignoring errant actions and behavior almost always comes easier than taking the needed action. Not disciplining when needed sends confusing messages to the errant employee, other employees and other managers in the farm business. If starting work at 6:30 a.m. rather than 6:00 a.m. draws no reaction from the employer, does this mean the starting time has been changed to 6:30?
Several guidelines help reduce the compounding of discipline problems with problems in disciplining. Both employers and employees need to know the rules and performance expectations. An employee handbook or other form of written statement provided each employee is basic. Rules should be uniformly enforced among all employees. If special rules apply to a certain employee, e.g., use of the pickup truck without asking permission, other employees need to be so informed. Punishment should be based on facts. All parties should be heard rather than depending on one person only for facts. Action should be taken promptly. "Saving up" a series of minor problems and infractions for a grand explosion is poor disciplinary practice. All discipline other than discharge should have the objective of helping the employee. Permit the employee to maintain self-respect by disciplining the employee's behavior or act. Do not berate the person.
Keeping punishment consistent with the severity of an offense challenges all labor managers. Being thirty minutes tardy for work the fourth time in two weeks has to be handled differently from being thirty minutes tardy for the first time in two years. Theft of tools has to be handled differently than tardiness for work. Progressive discipline provides a formal structure within which errant employees can be handled. In progressive discipline, the severity of punishment increases in relation to the seriousness of the offense or the number of times an offense is repeated. Typical levels in progressive discipline are: informal talk and counseling, oral warning or reprimand, written warning, disciplinary layoff and discharge.
Both employers and employees usually react negatively to the atmosphere of conflict and parent disciplining child inherent to progressive discipline. High priority placed on selection, training, informal communication and performance appraisal reduces the need for punishment of employees. Treating employees as adults, expecting them to rely on self-assessment for correcting problems and relying on informal counseling rather than formal reprimands provide an atmosphere of positive discipline.
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